The site named Vallone Inferno is a rock-shelter located at ca. 770 m a.s.l. in the municipality of Scillato, Sicily, Italy; its coordinates are 37°C 52′ 17.74″ N and 13° 55′ 58.97″ E.

Vallone Inferno (also known as Fosso Inferno) is a deep gorge which cuts through the northern slope of Monte dei Cervi–Monte Fanusi, a complex fault escarpment at the northwestern margin of the Madonie massif, which shows evidence of neotectonic activity. In this sector, the massif is modelled into the Triassic to Oligocene sedimentary rocks of the Imerese Basin, in which carbonate, siliceous and terrigenous lithologies (limestone, sometimes cherty, dolomite, marl, clay, radiolarite etc.) alternate with one another (Fig. 1). The origin of the gorge is chiefly fluvio-karstic, though structural and tectonic factors also played a role in its development.

The rock-shelter is located at the foot of the left wall of Vallone Inferno, almost at the exit of the escarpment, facing the gentle slope that is found downstream, where Cenozoic terrains of Numidian Flysch and slope sediment outcrop.

The formation of the rock-shelter is mainly related to karstic dissolution, which was controlled at the same time by the structural layout of the local bedrock (cherty limestone and dolomitic limestone belonging to the Scillato geological formation).

The archaeological interest of Vallone Inferno was recognized in the context of the major survey project on the Madonie mountain range (Forgia, 2008 and Forgia, 2009). One of the sample areas chosen for the project was an intermediate area lying between local inland uplands (more than 1600 m a.s.l.) and lowlands (around 500 m a.s.l.) near the Imera river valley. The site immediately showed its importance, because an abrupt section of the 5-m archaeological deposit was clearly exposed by the Inferno stream.

The archaeological sequence is at present 5 m deep in total, and the archaeological investigation covers an area of 30 m².

The rock-shelter is more than 10 m long and 6 m deep and is oriented to north (Fig. 2A). The water stream is close to the shelter, the gorge is narrow, and the visibility from the rock-shelter is reduced to a small portion of the Imera river valley and of the coastal area.

The international team, already established during the survey project, planned a first research campaign in order to investigate this exceptional archaeological and palaeoenvironmental sequence.

In the first excavation campaign (2008) the work focused on a first exploration of the sequence. The section of deposit was cleaned, and a preliminary excavation was started on the section running east-west (with respect to the theoretical north of the excavation). In places a limited area of the lower section was cleaned. Archaeological units were established according to sedimentary criteria. We used numbers to designate the stratigraphic units and subunits, and letters to refer to minor divisions (Fig. 2C). These were specified according to minor sedimentary differences as well as archaeological features (such as burnt sediment, structures, etc.).

From 2009 to 2011 the upper part of the section was investigated over an area of about 30 m² (from layer 1.1 to layer 3.3.O), and the middle and lower parts of the section were partially explored (from layer 3.4.A to layer 4.2) (Fig. 2B).

Each find (lithic, pottery and faunal remains, as well as samples of a different nature) was 3D recorded. Micromammal remains were collected by water screening, archaeobotanical remains of no use for radiocarbon dating were recovered using water flotation. Samples of sediment were taken from each sub-layer and from fireplaces for archaeobotanical analysis.

The Vallone Inferno rock-shelter was almost filled by a thick deposit, within which four main stratigraphic complexes were identified. From the top to the base these are as follows (Fig. 3A and B): •

complex 1: stone walls and structures dating to the 20th century;

Five samples have been selected from the sequence for radiocarbon dating by AMS: four come from complex 3 and have been analysed at Circe Innova Lab; the last is from subcomplex 4.2 and has been analysed by Beta analytic Inc (Table 1).

The stratigraphic succession at Vallone Inferno is relevant for understanding the palaeoenvironmental evolution and human occupation of the margin of the Madonie massif from the beginning of the Holocene to the Late Roman period.

Middle Neolithic occupation is represented at Vallone Inferno by Tricromica ceramics and by the associated engraved pottery (undisturbed subcomplex 3.4.N). Vallone Inferno represents one of the few examples of a stratified context of exclusively Tricromica ware, which has been considered a phenomenon of importation in late Stentinello culture (Bernabò Brea, 1958) as opposed to the Stentinello ware that has often been recovered in Sicily. Nowadays, the presence of sites or chrono-cultural horizons showing an exclusively Tricromica production different from the late stage of the Stentinello culture is starting to emerge clearly also in Sicily. The stratigraphy at Vallone Inferno has shown that an erosive event almost totally destroyed the Middle Neolithic layers and that Bronze Age settlements, as attested by the pottery record discussed below, mixed the cultural elements of the two epochs – with a gap between the second half of the fifth millennium BC. and the beginning of the third. With respect to lithic industry, we underline the presence of obsidian, which seems to be associated mainly with the Middle Neolithic occupation of the rock-shelter, a period in which the circulation of obsidian in the area starts to assume a wide-ranging importance. Moreover, the substitution of Stentinello culture by Tricromica groups at Lipari, and the presence of the latter in Sicily, could testify to a monopoly in the obsidian trade by Tricromica groups, as suggested by Bernabò Brea and Cavalier (1980).

In subcomplex 3.4 a ceramic record of the Castelluccio “facies” of the Early Bronze Age is also represented. Together with the record from Bommartino cave on the opposite side of the River Imera, this provides us with first indications of the diffusion of this painted style along the valley. The Castelluccio “facies” has often been associated with a mature stage of an economic system based on agriculture and pastoralism and with a cultural environment mainly known from the Southeast of Sicily and apparently absent from the northern coast, where the coeval unpainted “facies” of Rodì-Tindari and Moarda seem to be predominant. The presence along the Imera river valley and its immediate surroundings (Vecchiuzzo cave) of painted pottery from the Late Copper and Early Bronze Ages underlines how this area stands out from the innermost areas of the Madonie range, where only unpainted Copper/Bronze Age horizons (Abisso del Vento, Fico, Chiusilla caves and nearby open-air sites) have been recorded. Along with the Nebrodi, the Madonie Mountains constitute the only true mountain range, with peaks around 2000 m a.s.l., towards which people and cultures (especially related to pastoralism) converge, leaving traces of themselves, but not deleting the local traditions. The mountains divide communities who live there permanently, but at the same time are a pole of attraction for communities coming from different districts. This provides a possible interpretation for the arrival, from the south, of groups of humans that seasonally exploited this part of the mountains and for the sporadic presence (out of stratigraphic context) at Vallone Inferno of a Bell beaker – as a fragment – linked to the western tradition.

Moreover, the presence of human remains in subcomplex 3.4 suggests a possible funerary use of Vallone Inferno, limited to the prehistoric period. The direct AMS-¹⁴C dating of a human specimen, the first from the Madonie range, to the second half of the third millennium BC shows that this could be linked to an Early Bronze Age inhumation within the rock-shelter. This enriches the limited human record of the area as regards Copper and Bronze Age cave burials (Fico, Chiusilla and Abisso del Vento: Giuffrida Ruggeri, 1901–1902 and Mannino, 1989).

The historical sequence of the Vallone Inferno pottery record (subcomplex 3.1–3.3), which is actually poor from a typological and a functional point of view, seems to reflect the temporary use of the rock-shelter by small human groups probably involved in seasonal pastoral activities. Some of the potsherds directly recall similar specimens from the surrounding area, where the presence of a Late Roman territorial system involving the whole Madonie range (Forgia, 2009) suggests that the human groups of Vallone Inferno might have originated from nearby settlements located a few 100 m to the north, at a slightly lower altitude in a flat area. According to Traina (1994) and Vera (1995), the preference for the natural environment and marginal land in the Late Roman period is well exemplified by the Vallone Inferno area, where the highlands support and complement a mid-altitude settlement pattern, in an integrated territorial system.

In this respect, the function of the site during the Late Roman and Byzantine period is clearly shown by subcomplexes 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3, all of them interesting for their dung-burning practices, while within layer 3.2.C three hearths are documented. One of the most interesting burnt dung surfaces is that of layer 3.3.N, which is clearly associated with a sheepfold (3.3.K) and with four fireplaces. With regard to pastoral practices, four caves have been investigated in the Madonie territory (Brochier et al., 1992), of which three (two of them very close to Vallone Inferno) presented burnt manure layers in sub-recent deposits.

Carpological, charcoal and archaeozoological results agree in defining the function of the site as a shelter for herding activity throughout the sequence.

Firstly, domestic animals are the main faunal resources in all the subcomplexes studied. In the prehistoric ones, ovicaprines are the basis of livestock management, as has been observed in other prehistoric Italian sites with a sheepfold context (Rowley-Conwy, 1997 and Tagliacozzo, 2005). In the historic subcomplex, a change in the stockbreeding structure is observed, since domestic suids are the main taxon.

On the other hand, the charcoal record shows the use of the shelter for different purposes. In all the phases a preference for Olea europaea, Fraxinus and Quercus has been documented, which might be associated with the activities that took place in the shelter related mainly to the feeding of livestock. These three taxa, especially Fraxinus and Olea europaea, are very much appreciated as fodder for goat and sheep herds (Allué, 2005, Badal, 1999 and Delhon et al., 2008). Likewise, blackberry (Rubus fruticosus/idaeus and Rubus sp.), as shown by carpological data (3.1/3.4), could either be identified as animal fodder or interpreted as food that was grazed from hedges (Akeret and Jacomet, 1997 and Akeret and Rentzel, 2001).

Moreover, the decrease in the dominance of deciduous oak in archaeological layers 3.1–3.3 (Late Roman/Byzantine) could be related to the intensification of human activities, which, according to other studies, are well documented from the Bronze Age on. Sadori et al. (2008) suggest that forest clearance by burning and the intense use of wood for a variety of purposes (metallurgy, construction) might have caused a decline in the arboreal cover leading to the decrease in deciduous oaks. Deciduous Quercus has its main peak at ca. 8000 years BP; its subsequent decrease starts slowly but is very noticeable at ca. 3500 years BP (Sadori et al., 2004 and Sadori et al., 2008).

Finally, in reference to the seasonality of the occupation site, the presence of shoots along the whole archaeological sequence at Vallone Inferno, probably harvested in the early spring, might be related with immature ovicaprine individuals, which are usually born in the last days of winter or the first days of spring in the Mediterranean region (Balasse and Tresset, 2007 and Helmer et al., 2005). On the other hand, the abundance of deciduous ovicaprine teeth in the prehistoric levels shows an intense occupation at that time, since these elements fall preferentially within the sheepfold when the animal is eating (Helmer et al., 2005). The palaeoenvironmental data, enriching and agreeing with the results of previous studies (Allué et al., 2009, Carrión et al., 2003, Sadori et al., 2004 and Sadori et al., 2008), focus upon the aridification and opening of the landscape (Sadori and Giardini, 2007) towards the top of the sequence, as a consequence of the anthropic impact.

The percentages of arboreal pollen (AP) at Vallone Inferno are low and decrease more markedly towards the end of the sequence; at the same time, evergreen elements are more abundant in the upper units.

Accordingly, at the top of unit 3.2 the presence of Olea and a significant increase in Quercus ilex-coccifera type have been identified. This may be associated with a time of warmer temperatures and a drier environment. All these data agree in ascribing subcomplex 3.4 a higher level of humidity and forest cover. In fact, as previously pointed out by Bonfiglio et al. (2000) for the climate at the beginning of the Holocene in Sicily, the data obtained with our results suggest that this period had a climate similar to today, but with a higher degree of humidity and more extensive forested areas than nowadays, as also suggested by the abundance of Glis glis and the presence of Muscardinus avellanarius and Arvicola cf. A. terrestris in layer 3.4.

With the absolute ¹⁴C AMS dating range from the beginning of the Holocene to the Late Roman period and the archaeological and palaeoenvironmental results, the sequence is of great potential in the context of prehistoric and historical studies. With respect to northwestern Sicily in particular, the site of Vallone Inferno could serve as a reference sequence, providing a good set of information from various levels of investigations.

In the course of our multidisciplinary studies the following conclusions have been reached.

The pottery, the faunal record, and to a lesser extent the lithic tools testify to the repeated use of the shelter. Furthermore, our results provide information about the different strategies likely to have been adopted in the exploitation of territories, in a long diachronic view. The function of the site is well documented by the palaeoeconomic evidence, which indicates a clear and persistent use of the shelter for pastoral purposes and also as a sheepfold over the course of time. Vallone Inferno thus represents a key site in the interpretation of pastoral systems, with respect in particular to the origin and the first development of a practice which to this day remains one of the main economic supplies for the area.

Moreover, as revealed by different data, the sequence shows environmental changes over time. At a preliminary stage of the investigation, it is possible to note that the environmental changes seem to be closely associated with the human exploitation of the area. In this regard, however, it does not seem that the main activity documented at the site (related to farming and grazing) can in itself be responsible for such changes. Therefore, the palaeoenvironmental changes could be related more to human pressure resulting from the establishment of more intensive farming systems and the more aggressive exploitation of the forest (wood, charcoal, etc.), especially from the Greek and Roman colonization to the medieval and modern ages.